Albania

The Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë, IPA [ɾɛˈpubliˌka ɛ ˌʃʨipəˈɾiːs] or simply Shqipëria) is a Balkan country in Southeastern Europe. It borders Montenegro to the north, the Serbian province of Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east, and Greece to the south. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west and a coast on the Ionian Sea to the southwest.

Albania has played a relevant role in managing inter-ethnic tensions in southeastern Europe and is a potential candidate for membership in the European Union and NATO.

History

Main article: History of Albania

Antiquity

Albania, in the southeastern corner of Europe, has been populated since prehistoric times and was settled by the Illyrians, possible ancestors of present-day Albanians.^[2]^[3] Situated as it was, surrounded by powerful, warring empires, Albania has experienced a considerable amount of violence throughout its history. Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Venetians and Ottomans swept through, leaving their cultural mark as well as their ruins.

Bato is one of few leaders of the Illyrian uprising against the Romans in 6 A.D.

Archaeological research shows that the lands that are today inhabited by Albanians were first populated in the Paleolithic Age (Stone Age). The first areas settled were those with favourable climatic and geographic conditions. In Albania, the earliest settlements have been discovered in the Gajtan cavern (Shkodra), in Konispol, at Mount Dajti, and at Saranda.

Fragments of Cyclopean structures, of the Cyclopean-Pelasgian period, were discovered at Kretsunitsa, Arinishta, and other sites in the district of Gjirokastra. The walls, partly Cyclopean, of an ancient city (perhaps Byllis) are visible at Gradishti on the picturesque Viosa River. Few traces remain of the once celebrated Dyrrhachium (today Durrës). Central and Northern Albania abound in unexplored remains of the Illyrian period, and many traces of the early Illyrian civilization still lie covered under the dust and ashes of nearly thirty centuries.

The rediscovered city of Butrint is probably more significant today than it was when Julius Caesar used it as a provisions depot for his troops during his campaigns in the 1st century BC. At that time, it was considered to be an unimportant outpost, overshadowed by the likes of Apollonia and Durrës. In 2000, the Albanian government established Butrint National Park, which draws about 70,000 visitors annually and is Albania's second World Heritage site. Cultural performances are held in the huge amphitheater.

Pelasgians

The Bronze Age is characterized with shifting demographics. Stockbreeding people came from the east around the mid 3000s BC to the early 2000s BC. This population is believed to be the ancient Pelasgians, which have been mentioned frequently by ancient writers such as Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides.^[4]^[5]^[6] The differentiation of populations by ethnicity began during the Bronze Age. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian in the fifth century BC, writes about the Pelasgians that continued to live in Greece. Ancient writers' references to the Pelasgians are confusing, however, with some stating that Pelasgians had spoken a "barbaric" or "non Hellenic” language, while others maintained that they were Greek-speaking. A theory dating back to the seventeenth century attempted to connect the pre-Indo-European Pelasgian language with Albanian. Today, however, Albanian is universally classified as an Indo-European language by linguists. See Origin of the Albanians for a discussion of the theories surrounding the origin of the Albanians and the Albanian language.

The Kingdom of Illyria (1225-167 B.C.)

Statue of Illyrian soldiers in Dyrrachium(Durrës).

The Kingdom of Illyria grew from the general area of modern-day Albania to eventually control much of the eastern Adriatic coastline. Scodra (Albanian:Shkodra) was its capital, just as the city is now the capital of Northern and Central Albania.

The earliest known King of Illyria was Hylli (Albanian:Ylli;Star) who is recorded to have died in the year 1225 BC. The kingdom, however, reached the zenith of its expansion and development in the fourth century BC, when King Bardhyllus (Albanian:Bardhyli:White Star), one of the most prominent of the Illyrian kings, united the Kingdoms of Illyria, Molossia and a good part of Macedonia under his control. Its decay began under the same ruler as a result of the attacks made on it by Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.

The Illyrians created and developed their culture, language and anthropological features in the western part of the Balkans, where ancient writers mention them in their works. The regions that the Illyrians inhabited were expansive, encompassing the western Balkan peninsula, north to central Europe, and east around the Lyhind Lake (Ohrid Lake). Other Illyrian tribes also migrated and developed in Italy. Among them were the Messapii and Iapyges. The name 'Illyria' is mentioned in works since the fifth century BC while some tribes are mentioned as early as the twelfth century BC by Homer. The ethnic formation of the Illyrians, however, is much older.

The beginning of Illyrian origins date to the fifteenth century BC, during the mid-Bronze Age, when distinct Illyrian ethnic features began to form. By the Iron Age, the Illyrians were fully distinct and had inherited their developing anthropological features and language from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. The old theory that the Illyrians came from Central Europe during the seventh to ninth centuries has been disproved by studies performed following World War II. The fact that graves with urns, characteristic of Central Europe, are not found in Illyrian settlements severely damages the theory. Central European influence on the Illyrians is a result of cultural exchanges and movement of artisans.^[7]

In the first decades under Byzantine rule (until 461), Illyria suffered the devastation of raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. Not long after these barbarian invaders swept through the Balkans, the Slavs appeared. Between the 6th and 8th centuries they settled in Illyrian territories and proceeded to assimilate Illyrian tribes in much of what is now Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. The tribes of southern Illyria, however, including modern Albania, averted assimilation and preserved their native tongue.

Greek Colonies

Apollonia,It was founded in 588 BC

From the 8th to the 6th century BC the Greeks founded a string of colonies on Illyrian soil, two of the most prominent of which were Epidamnus (modern Durrës) and Apollonia (near modern Vlorë).

Roughly parallel with the rise of Greek colonies,Illyrian tribes began to evolve politically from relatively small and simple entities into larger and more complex ones. At first they formed temporary alliances with one another for defensive or offensive purposes, then federations and, still later, kingdoms.

Under the rule of King Glaukia, the Illyrian state strengthened rapidly. In 355 BC war broke out against Alexander of Macedonia to free the eastern territories and in the meantime Apollonia is freed from the Macedonian subjugation. Glaukia's successors -- Monun and Mytyl -- strengthen the Illyrian state economically and mint both bronze and silver coins. Soon after the mid-3d century BC, under the reign of Pleurat and Agron, the Illyrian state starts to prosper again.

In 231 BC they enter into alliance with Acarnania and apparently turn out to be the most powerful force in the Balkans.

Roman and Byzantine Era

Prætorian Guard

It was the Romans who destroyed Illyrian autonomy through military defeat in 165 BC. Roman Albania was traversed by the Via Egnatia, the Roman road that linked east with west and Rome with the far eastern reaches of its empire. After being conquered by the Roman Empire, Illyria was reorganized as a Roman province. Illyricum was later divided into the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia, the lands comprising modern-day Albania.

There are,two outstanding features of Roman influence:

In the first place, the Albanian language borrowed a great number of words, mostly religious and liturgical terms, owing to the fact that Albania was at first attached to the See of Rome, though the religion of Jesus was preached to the Albanians by St. Paul himself during a visit he made to Durazzo (Albanian:Durrës).

In the second place, the Albanians had more than their share in the election of the Roman Emperors during the turbulent period of the Empire, by virtue of the fact that the notorious Prætorian Guard, the emperor-making power, consisted mainly of Illyrian troops.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Albania was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire, administered from Constantinople. Albania was under Byzantine rule until the fourteenth century AD when the Ottoman Turks began to make incursions into the Empire. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and by 1460 almost all former Byzantine territories were in the hands of the Turks.

Ottoman Era

Statue of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. Skanderbeg is considered the national hero of Albania.

The Ottoman Turks expanded their empire from Anatolia to the Balkans in the 14th century. By the 15th century, the Turks has brought under subjection nearly all of the Balkan Peninsula except for a small coastal strip which is included in present-day Albania. The Albanians' resistance to the Turks in the mid-15th century won them acclaim all over Europe. Albania became a symbol of resistance to the Ottoman Turks but suffered an almost continuous state of warfare.^[8]

One of the most successful resistance against the invading Ottomans, was led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg from 1443 to 1468. After the death of Skanderbeg, resistance continued until 1478, although with only moderate success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by Skanderbeg faltered and fell apart, and the Ottomans conquered the territory of Albania shortly after the fall of Kruje's castle. Albania then became part of the Ottoman Empire. They would remain a part of the Ottoman Empire as the provinces of İşkodra, Manastır and Yanya until 1912.

Effects of the Balkan Wars

After the Second Balkan War, the Ottomans were removed from Albania and there was a possibility of some of the lands being absorbed by Serbia and the southern tip by Greece. This decision angered the Italians, who did not want Serbia to have an extended coastline, and it also angered the Austro-Hungarians, who did not want a powerful Serbia on their southern border. Despite Serbian, Montenegrin, and Greek occupation forces on the ground, and under immense pressure from Austria-Hungary, it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the Principality of Albania. However the Austro - Italian project was not successful.

Monarchy

From 1925, the country was ruled by President Ahmet Zogu who, in 1928, declared himself King Zog I, the first Albanian monarch since Gjergj Kastriot Skenderbej. Styling himself a European king, he married Hungarian noblewoman Geraldine Apponyi de Nagy-Apponyi. His reign ended when the Italian fascists invaded Albania in April 7 1939. The communists took power after the Second World War. After the fall of the communist government, his son Leka, Crown Prince of Albania and the royal family returned to Albania on June 28, 2002.

World War II

Albania was one of the first countries occupied by the Axis in World War II. Mussolini invaded and occupied Albania, while the world was focused on the German actions in Czechoslovakia and Poland. As Hitler began his aggressions, the Italian dictator set his eyes on Albania across the Adriatic from Italy. Despite some resistance, especially at Durrës, Italy invaded Albania on 7 April 1939 and took control of the country. On April 12, the Albanian parliament voted to unite the country with Italy. Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and the Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and soon absorbed Albania's military and diplomatic service into Italy's.

Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece. Mussolini never discussed the attack with Hitler (Mussolini announced it when Hitler arrived on a visit. "Führer, we are on the march." ). During WWII, Albanian nationalist groups, including Communist partisans, fought against the Italians and subsequently the Germans. When the Germans withdrew in November 1944, the Communists seized control of Albania. The partially French-educated Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as secretary general of the Party of Labor (the Albanian Communist Party). The Communist Party was created on November 8, 1941 with the help of other Bolshevik Communist Parties.

The Holocaust in Albania

Albania is unique in that it is the only European country occupied by the Nazis that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the War. The Albanian response to the Holocaust is especially notable because it was Europe's only largely Muslim country. Even so only a Jewish family of six was deported and killed during the Nazi occupation of Albania ^[9]. Not only did the Albanians protect their own Jews, but they provided refuge for Jews from neighboring countries. The Albanians refused to compile and hand over lists of Jews. Instead they provided the Jewish families with fake documents and helped them disperse in the Albanian population^[10].

The role of Albanians in the Holocaust has become a factor in the current issue over the independence of Kosovo. One pro-Serbian^{[citation needed]} ^[11] author, Carl Savitch, writes that Italian forces in Albania rejected the Final Solution as “the German disease” and did not enforce anti-Jewish measures. This is why Albanian Jews were “rescued” in Albania, not because of anything the Albanians did themselves. Yad Vashem maintains it was both the policy of the occupying Italian authorities and the Albanian population that protected the Jews in Albania proper. ^[12].

There was no history of ideological anti-Semitism in Albania, Greece or Bulgaria. So, Albania was not unique in this regard. The small number of Jews in Albania also played a key role in the possibility to protect them all. During the Italian occupation, they were able to disperse and blend in with the general population. However, the role of Albanian population on saving Jews is undeniable.

The People's Republic of Albania

Enver Hoxha.

From 1944 to 1991, Albania became a People's Republic and was a one-party state in which Enver Hoxha ruled with an iron hand. In 1961 he broke with Albania’s closest ally, the Soviet Union, because he believed Khrushchev had abandoned the teachings of Stalin. Subsequently, Albania’s closest ally was the People’s Republic of China. However, when the PRC established diplomatic relations with the U.S. in 1978, Hoxha denounced the Chinese as well and decided to pursue a policy of self-reliance. The result was not only extreme isolation but also absolute financial ruin for Albania. An example of this may be drawn from the construction between 1974 and 1986 of approximately 700,000 reinforced concrete bunkers to defend against an anticipated multi-front attack.

Upon Hoxha’s death in 1985, Ramiz Alia succeeded him as Party and state leader. Alia was Hoxha’s protégé, but was less repressive than the former leader and began to allow some reforms. This process was accelerated by news of the changes in the other Communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. There are statistics which show that during this period about 6000 Albanian citizens were executed for political reasons ^{[citation needed]}Despite this, the quality of life improved as both life expectancy and literacy showed large gains and economic growth continued until the mid 1970s.^{[citation needed]}

The Return of Capitalism

The first massive anti-communist protests took place in July 1990. Shortly afterwards, the communist regime under Ramiz Alia carried out some cosmetic changes in the economy. At the end of 1990, after strong student protests and independent syndicated movements, the regime accepted a multiparty system. The first multiparty general elections were held on March 31, 1991 and the Communist Party (PPSH) won the majority. Opposition parties accused the government of manipulation and called for new elections, which were held on March 22, 1992 and resulted in a coalition (composed of the Democratic Party, the Social-Democrats, and the Republican Party) coming to power.

In the general elections of June 1996 the Democratic Party won an absolute majority and the results ^{[citation needed]}, winning over 85% of parliamentary seats. In 1997 widespread riots erupted after the International Monetary Fund forced the state to liberalize banking practices. Many citizens, naive to the workings of a market economy, put their entire savings into pyramid schemes. In a short while, $2 billion (80% of the country's GDP) had been moved into the hands of just a few pyramid scheme owners, causing severe economic troubles and civic unrest. Police stations and military bases were looted of millions of Kalashnikovs and other weapons. Anarchy prevailed,^[13] and militia and even less-organized armed citizens controlled many cities. Naturally, American military advisers left the country for their own safety. The government of Aleksander Meksi resigned and a government of national unity was built. In response to the anarchy^{[citation needed]}, the Socialist Party won the early elections of 1997 and Berisha resigned the Presidency.

However, stability was far from being restored in the years after the 1997 riots. The power feuds raging inside the Socialist Party led to a series of short-lived Socialist governments. The country was flooded with refugees from neighboring Kosovo in 1998 and 1999 during the Kosovo War. In June 2002, a compromise candidate, Alfred Moisiu, a former general, was elected to succeed President Rexhep Meidani. Parliamentary elections in July 2005 brought Sali Berisha, as leader of the Democratic Party, back to power, mostly owing to Socialist infighting and a series of corruption scandals plaguing the government of Fatos Nano.^{[citation needed]}

The Euro-Atlantic integration of Albania has been the ultimate goal of the post-communist governments. Albania's EU membership bid has been set as a priority by the European Commission. On 2006 Albania signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU, thus completing the first major step towards joining the bloc^{[citation needed]}. Albania, along with Croatia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, hopes to receive an invitation to join NATO in 2008.^[14]

The workforce of Albania has continued to migrate to Greece, Italy, Germany, other parts of Europe, and North America. However, the migration flux is slowly decreasing, as more and more opportunities are emerging in Albania itself as its economy steadily develops.^[15]

Counties and districts

Counties of Albania

Main articles: Counties of Albania and Districts of Albania

Albania is divided into twelve counties (Albanian: official qark/qarku, but often prefekturë/prefektura), sometimes translated as prefecture). Each county is subdivided into several districts:

	County	Districts	Capital
1	Berat	Berat, Kuçovë, Skrapar	Berat
2	Dibër	Bulqizë, Dibër, Mat	Peshkopi
3	Durrës	Durrës, Krujë	Durrës
4	Elbasan	Elbasan, Gramsh, Librazhd, Peqin	Elbasan
5	Fier	Fier, Lushnjë, Mallakastër	Fier
6	Gjirokastër	Gjirokastër, Përmet, Tepelenë	Gjirokastër
7	Korçë	Devoll, Kolonjë, Korçë, Pogradec	Korçë
8	Kukës	Has, Kukës, Tropojë	Kukës
9	Lezhë	Kurbin, Lezhë, Mirditë	Lezhë
10	Shkodër	Malësi e Madhe, Pukë, Shkodër	Shkodër
11	Tirana	Kavajë, Tirana	Tirana
12	Vlorë	Delvinë, Sarandë, Vlorë	Vlorë

Geography

One of the many typical beautiful beaches in Albania

Main article: Geography of Albania

Albania has a total area of 28,750 square kilometers. Its coastline is 362 kilometres long and stretches on the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea. The lowlands of the west face the Adriatic Sea. The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible. The highest mountain is Korab situated in the district of Dibra, reaching up to 2,753 metres (9,032 ft).

The country has a continental climate at its high altitude regions with cold winters and hot summers. Besides the capital city of Tirana, which has 800,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are Durrës, Elbasan, Shkodër, Gjirokastër, Vlorë, Korçë and Kukës.

In Albanian grammar, a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: both Tiranë and Tirana, Shkodër and Shkodra are used.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Albania

Albanian people

As of July 2007 est, Albania's population of 3,844,841 is growing by 0.73% per year.^[16]^[17]^[18].Albania is a largely ethnically homogenous country with only small minorities. Approximately 96% of the total population is Albanian.

Minorities include Greeks, Aromanians (many of whom identify as Greeks), Torbesh, Gorani, Macedonians, Roma, Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Balkan Egyptians and Jews. The dominant language is Albanian, with two main dialects, Gheg and Tosk. Many Albanians are also fluent in English, Italian and Greek.

Religion

Christianity manifested itself in Albania during Roman rule, about the middle of the 1st century AD. At first the new religion had to compete with Oriental culture among them that of Mithra, Persian God of light which had entered the land in the wake of Albania's growing interaction with eastern regions of the empire. For a long time it also had to compete with gods worshiped by Illyrian pagans. The steady growth of the Christian community in Dyrrhachium (the Roman name for Epidamnus) led to the creation there of a bishopric in AD 58. Later, episcopal seats were established in Apollonia, Buthrotum (modern Butrint), and Scodra (modern Shkodra).

After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Albania became politically a part of the Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire, but remained ecclesiastically dependent on Rome. When the final schism occurred in 1054 between the Roman and Eastern churches, the Christians in southern Albania came under the jurisdiction of the ecumenical patriarch in Constantinople, and those in the north came under the purview of the papacy in Rome. This arrangement prevailed until the Ottoman invasions of the fourteenth century, when the Islamic faith was introduced.

One of the major legacies of nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule was the conversion of up to 60 percent of the Albanian population to Islam. Therefore, at independence the country emerged as a predominantly Muslim nation. In the mountainous north, the propagation of Islam was strongly opposed by Roman Catholics.

Albania was preponderantly Roman Catholic, with eighteen episcopal sees, some of which have an uninterrupted history from the dawn of Christendom down to our days. Albania was the last Roman Catholic bridgehead in the Balkans and the Popes were doing everything in their power to keep it and enlarge it. Gradually, however, backwardness, illiteracy, and the absence of an educated clergy and material inducements weakened the resistance.

The Communist regime, during its 45 years of absolute rule, religion was officially banned, and Albania was proclaimed as the first and only Atheist state in the world. Today, with the freedom of religion and worship, Albania contains numerous religions and denominations; however, within a muslim majority that may amount to 60% of the total population.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] Religious fanaticism has never been a problem,^[23]^{[dubious – discuss]} with people from different religious groups living in peace.^[24] Interreligious marriage is very common, and an immensely strong sense of Albanian identity has tended to bind Albanians of all religious practices together.^[25] The Roman Catholics are mostly located in the northern part of the country, particularly in the cities of Shkodër and Kruja, while Orthodox Christians lived in the southern districts of Gjirokastër, Korçë, Berat, and Vlorë. The Muslims were spread throughout the land, although they particularly dominated the centre. Most of them were traditional Sunnites, but about one-quarter were members of the liberal, panentheistic Bektashi sect, which for a time had its headquarters in Tiranë.

For generations, religious pragmatism was a distinctive trait of the Albanians. Even after accepting Islam, many people privately remained practicing Christians. As late as 1912, in a large number of villages in the Elbasan area, most men had two names, a Muslim one for public use and a Christian one for private use. Adherence to ancient pagan beliefs also continued well into the twentieth century, particularly in the northern mountain villages, many of which were devoid of churches and mosques. A Poet, Pashko Vasa(1825-92)known as Vaso Pasha,made the trenchant remark, later co-opted by Enver Hoxha, that "the religion of the Albanians is Albanianism." It is estimated that only 30-40% of Albanians actively practice a religion [6].

Despite such a diverse religious background, Albania has been free of religious conflict, mainly because Albanians have traditionally displayed a high degree of religious tolerance.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Albania

Since the fall of communism in 1990, Albania has launched economic programmes towards a more open-market economy^{[citation needed]}. The democratically elected government that assumed office in April 1992 launched an ambitious economic reform programme to halt economic deterioration and put the country on the path toward a market economy. Key elements included price and exchange system liberalisation, fiscal consolidation, monetary restraint, and a firm income policy^{[citation needed]}. These were complemented by a comprehensive package of structural reforms, including privatisation, enterprise, and financial sector reform, and creation of the legal framework for a market economy and private sector activity. Most prices were liberalised and are now approaching levels typical of the region^{[citation needed]}. Most agriculture, state housing, and small industry were privatised, along with transportation, services, and small and medium-sized enterprises^{[citation needed]}. After severe economic contraction following 1989, the economy slowly rebounded, finally surpassing its 1989 levels by the end of the 1990s. GDP per capita. Since prices have also risen, however, economic hardship has continued for much of the population. In 1995, Albania began privatizing large state enterprises. Since 2000, Albania has experienced a more rapid expansion of its economy.^{[citation needed]}

Following the signing of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement in June/July 2006, EU ministers urged Albania to push ahead with reforms, focusing on press freedom, property rights, institution building, respect for ethnic minorities and observing international standards in municipal elections.

Albania has made an impressive recovery, building a modern and diversified economy.Recent administrations have also improved infrastructure and opened competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution and airports.

Tourism in Albania is a large industry and is growing rapidly.The most notable tourist draws are the ancient sites of Apollonia,Butrinti, Krujë and Albania's coastline is becoming increasingly popular with tourists due to its relatively unspoiled nature and its beaches.

Military

Main article: Military of Albania

The Albanian Armed Forces are overseen by the General Staff Headquarters, and consists of:Land Forces Command (Army),Naval Forces Command (Navy),Air Defense Command,Doctrine and Training Command and Logistics Command.

In 2002, Albania's armed forces have launched a 10-year reform program sponsored and supervised by the U.S. Department of Defense in order to trim down and thoroughly modernise its current standing force of more than 25,000 troops.^[26]

Working towards NATO membership, the Adriatic Charter countries -- Albania, Croatia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia -- are expected to join the alliance in 2008.^[27]The Albanian army participates in peacekeeping missions in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Gallery

Albania	Butrint, UNESCO World Heritage Site.	Tirana, Albania	Apollonia site in Fier, Albania.
Albanian tradition dance.	Skanderbeg's castle in Krujë, Albania		Best view of Tirana, Albania.
Remains of a chapel in Butrint, Albania	Fishing in Albania	Ali Pasha's Castle, Albania	Blue Eye, Albania
Petrela Castle, Tirana, Albania	Durrës,Albania